JPH0141113B2 - - Google Patents
Info
- Publication number
- JPH0141113B2 JPH0141113B2 JP11732884A JP11732884A JPH0141113B2 JP H0141113 B2 JPH0141113 B2 JP H0141113B2 JP 11732884 A JP11732884 A JP 11732884A JP 11732884 A JP11732884 A JP 11732884A JP H0141113 B2 JPH0141113 B2 JP H0141113B2
- Authority
- JP
- Japan
- Prior art keywords
- microorganisms
- wastewater treatment
- treatment agent
- amount
- polyacrylamide gel
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Expired
Links
- 244000005700 microbiome Species 0.000 claims description 21
- 239000003795 chemical substances by application Substances 0.000 claims description 20
- 238000004065 wastewater treatment Methods 0.000 claims description 18
- 229920002401 polyacrylamide Polymers 0.000 claims description 10
- HRPVXLWXLXDGHG-UHFFFAOYSA-N Acrylamide Chemical group NC(=O)C=C HRPVXLWXLXDGHG-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims description 6
- 239000002351 wastewater Substances 0.000 claims description 5
- 150000002894 organic compounds Chemical class 0.000 claims description 4
- 238000004519 manufacturing process Methods 0.000 claims description 3
- 230000003100 immobilizing effect Effects 0.000 claims description 2
- 230000001590 oxidative effect Effects 0.000 claims description 2
- 230000000379 polymerizing effect Effects 0.000 claims description 2
- 239000000499 gel Substances 0.000 description 17
- 239000003431 cross linking reagent Substances 0.000 description 10
- 230000000813 microbial effect Effects 0.000 description 6
- 238000006116 polymerization reaction Methods 0.000 description 6
- 239000010802 sludge Substances 0.000 description 6
- 230000000694 effects Effects 0.000 description 5
- 241000894006 Bacteria Species 0.000 description 3
- LYCAIKOWRPUZTN-UHFFFAOYSA-N Ethylene glycol Chemical compound OCCO LYCAIKOWRPUZTN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 3
- 230000001580 bacterial effect Effects 0.000 description 3
- 239000003505 polymerization initiator Substances 0.000 description 3
- 239000010865 sewage Substances 0.000 description 3
- 239000000243 solution Substances 0.000 description 3
- MTPJEFOSTIKRSS-UHFFFAOYSA-N 3-(dimethylamino)propanenitrile Chemical compound CN(C)CCC#N MTPJEFOSTIKRSS-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- LCGLNKUTAGEVQW-UHFFFAOYSA-N Dimethyl ether Chemical compound COC LCGLNKUTAGEVQW-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 239000007864 aqueous solution Substances 0.000 description 2
- QVGXLLKOCUKJST-UHFFFAOYSA-N atomic oxygen Chemical compound [O] QVGXLLKOCUKJST-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 239000000969 carrier Substances 0.000 description 2
- 230000000052 comparative effect Effects 0.000 description 2
- VNWKTOKETHGBQD-UHFFFAOYSA-N methane Chemical compound C VNWKTOKETHGBQD-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 description 2
- 239000000178 monomer Substances 0.000 description 2
- ZIUHHBKFKCYYJD-UHFFFAOYSA-N n,n'-methylenebisacrylamide Chemical compound C=CC(=O)NCNC(=O)C=C ZIUHHBKFKCYYJD-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 239000005416 organic matter Substances 0.000 description 2
- 229910052760 oxygen Inorganic materials 0.000 description 2
- 239000001301 oxygen Substances 0.000 description 2
- USHAGKDGDHPEEY-UHFFFAOYSA-L potassium persulfate Chemical compound [K+].[K+].[O-]S(=O)(=O)OOS([O-])(=O)=O USHAGKDGDHPEEY-UHFFFAOYSA-L 0.000 description 2
- IXPNQXFRVYWDDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N 1-methyl-2,4-dioxo-1,3-diazinane-5-carboximidamide Chemical compound CN1CC(C(N)=N)C(=O)NC1=O IXPNQXFRVYWDDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 241000186361 Actinobacteria <class> Species 0.000 description 1
- 229920001817 Agar Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 102000008186 Collagen Human genes 0.000 description 1
- 108010035532 Collagen Proteins 0.000 description 1
- 241000195493 Cryptophyta Species 0.000 description 1
- 241000233866 Fungi Species 0.000 description 1
- OAKJQQAXSVQMHS-UHFFFAOYSA-N Hydrazine Chemical compound NN OAKJQQAXSVQMHS-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- KWYHDKDOAIKMQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine Chemical compound CN(C)CCN(C)C KWYHDKDOAIKMQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 239000004372 Polyvinyl alcohol Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000002253 acid Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000008272 agar Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229940023476 agar Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 239000000679 carrageenan Substances 0.000 description 1
- 235000010418 carrageenan Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 229920001525 carrageenan Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 229940113118 carrageenan Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 229920001436 collagen Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 229960005188 collagen Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 230000018044 dehydration Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000006297 dehydration reaction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000002474 experimental method Methods 0.000 description 1
- 239000000835 fiber Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000012510 hollow fiber Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000011534 incubation Methods 0.000 description 1
- 239000008235 industrial water Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000000203 mixture Substances 0.000 description 1
- UBTYFVJZTZYJHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N n-[2-(prop-2-enoylamino)propyl]prop-2-enamide Chemical compound C=CC(=O)NC(C)CNC(=O)C=C UBTYFVJZTZYJHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- CHDKQNHKDMEASZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N n-prop-2-enoylprop-2-enamide Chemical compound C=CC(=O)NC(=O)C=C CHDKQNHKDMEASZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 230000001546 nitrifying effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000004014 plasticizer Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229920000642 polymer Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 229920002451 polyvinyl alcohol Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 229940068984 polyvinyl alcohol Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 239000011347 resin Substances 0.000 description 1
- 229920005989 resin Polymers 0.000 description 1
- 239000000661 sodium alginate Substances 0.000 description 1
- 235000010413 sodium alginate Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 229940005550 sodium alginate Drugs 0.000 description 1
- 239000008399 tap water Substances 0.000 description 1
- 235000020679 tap water Nutrition 0.000 description 1
- 230000001988 toxicity Effects 0.000 description 1
- 231100000419 toxicity Toxicity 0.000 description 1
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- UHVMMEOXYDMDKI-JKYCWFKZSA-L zinc;1-(5-cyanopyridin-2-yl)-3-[(1s,2s)-2-(6-fluoro-2-hydroxy-3-propanoylphenyl)cyclopropyl]urea;diacetate Chemical compound [Zn+2].CC([O-])=O.CC([O-])=O.CCC(=O)C1=CC=C(F)C([C@H]2[C@H](C2)NC(=O)NC=2N=CC(=CC=2)C#N)=C1O UHVMMEOXYDMDKI-JKYCWFKZSA-L 0.000 description 1
Landscapes
- Immobilizing And Processing Of Enzymes And Microorganisms (AREA)
- Treatment Of Biological Wastes In General (AREA)
Description
産業上の利用分野
本発明は、廃水中の有機化合物を微生物学的に
酸化処理するための廃水の処理剤及びその製造方
法に係り、特に、ポリアクリルアミドゲル内部に
微生物を包括固定した廃水の処理剤及びその製造
方法に関する。
従来の技術
最近、各種の菌体を固定化して廃水の処理に使
用することが提案された。この方法は、余剰汚泥
の発生量が少なく、また難分解性有機物の分解が
可能であるという利点を有するため、注目されて
いる（角野ら「固定化微生物による下水再利用技
術」日本工業用水協会、第19回研究発表会要旨
集、昭和59年３月及び特願昭58−1526号明細書、
参照）。
固定化に使用する担体としては、従来、ポリア
クリルアミドゲル、寒天、カラギーナン、コラー
ゲン、ポリビニルアルコール、アルギン酸ナトリ
ウム等が知られている。これらの担体のうちポリ
アクリルアミドゲルは強度の点では最も優れてい
ると言われている。
発明が解決しようとする問題点
前記のようにポリアクリルアミドゲルは比較的
に強度に優れているが、その内部に微生物を包括
固定した従来の処理剤の場合、物理的強度は0.8
〜2.5Kg／cm2（圧縮強度）と比較的小さく、その
耐久性（寿命）にまだ問題がある。
アクリルアミド濃度や重合時の架橋剤の量を増
加させれば、容易に物理的強度を増大することが
できるが、このような方法は、(1)高価なモノマー
や架橋剤の使用量が増大し、(2)モノマーや架橋剤
の微生物毒性が濃度増加に従つて急激に起こり、
固定化後の微生物活性が著しく低下し、(3)ゲルの
密度が高くなり微生物が廃水中の有機物や酸素を
取り込む速度が大幅に低下する等、多くの欠点を
生じる。
従つて、本発明は、前記従来技術の欠点を解消
し、物理的強度及び耐久性において優れ、しかも
高い活性を有する固定化微生物を提供することを
目的とする。
問題点を解決するための手段
本発明による廃水の処理剤は、廃水中の有機化
合物を微生物学的に酸化する廃水の処理剤におい
て、ポリアクリルアミドゲル内部に微生物を４％
以上包括固定化したことを特徴とする。
本発明による廃水の処理剤は、アクリルアミド
モノマー水溶液中に微生物を懸濁し、40℃以下の
温度で重合させることによりポリアクリルアミド
ゲル内に微生物を４％以上包括固定化することに
よつて製造される。
本明細書において、微生物の量は下記の式によ
つて算出されるものである。
微生物量(%)＝ゲル内乾燥菌体量（ｇ）／ゲル重量（ｇ
）×100
ゲル重量＝ゲル内乾燥菌体重量（ｇ）＋樹脂重量（ｇ
）＋架橋剤重量（ｇ）＋水分重量（ｇ）
本発明による廃水の処理剤を製造する場合、ア
クリルアミドモノマー水溶液に架橋剤、重合促進
剤及び重合開始剤を添加して重合反応を行う。ア
クリルアミドの架橋剤としては、例えばＮ，
N′−メチレンビスアクリルアミド、Ｎ，N′−プ
ロピレンビスアクリルアミド、ジアクリルアミド
ジメチルエーテル、１，２−ジアクリルアミドエ
チレングリコール又はＮ，N′−ジアリル酒石酸
ジアミド等を使用することができる。重合促進剤
としては、β−ジメチルアミノプロピオニトリ
ル、Ｎ，Ｎ，N′，N′−テトラメチルエチレンジ
アミン等を使用することができる。また、重合開
始剤としては、通常、ペルオクソ二硫酸カリウム
を使用する。
重合により得られたゲルを２〜３mmの大きさの
球、円柱、板、繊維、中空繊維等の形状に形成す
ることができる。
作 用
微生物は、有機化合物を分解する作用の他、ゲ
ルの可塑剤としての作用を有し、ゲルの強度を向
上させる。ゲル内の微生物量を４％以上とするこ
とにより、架橋剤を節約して強度の高い処理剤を
得ることができる。
実施例
次に、実施例に基づいて本発明を詳述するが、
本発明はこれに限定されるものではない。
実施例 １〜５
包括固定化に用いる微生物は、Ｋ下水処理場の
活性汚泥をヌツチエ脱水試験機で脱水し、更に高
分子凝集剤を活性汚泥乾物量当たり0.5％添加し
て得た含水率85％の脱水ケーキを使用した。別
に、アクリルアミドモノマー68％及びＮ，N′−
メチレンビスアクリルアミド3.78％を含む溶液を
作つた。この溶液と脱水ケーキ、水道水を下記の
第１表に示す組成になるように混合し、次いで重
合促進剤としてβ−ジメチルアミノプロピオニト
リルを0.5％になるように添加し、更に重合開始
剤としてペルオクソ二硫酸カリウムを0.25％にな
るように添加し、38℃で重合させ、活性汚泥を包
括固定した。こうして得た包括固定した活性汚泥
を含むポリアクリルアミドゲルを直径３mm、高さ
３mmの円柱に成形した。
このようにして、ポリアクリルアミドゲル内部
の微生物量を４〜11％の間に変動させて製造した
廃水処理剤の圧縮強度及び活性を測定し、第２表
に示す。
圧縮強度は、木屋式の強度計でポリアクリルア
ミドゲルが破損する圧力を測定したものである。
また、活性は、廃水処理剤を114mlのふ卵びんに
11％充填し、BOD90mg／の下水で酸素摂取速
度を測定した数値である。
この実験で得られた微生物量と圧縮強度の関係
を第１図に示す。第１図から明らかなとおり、微
生物量が４％以上で圧縮強度が最大となる。
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION FIELD The present invention relates to a wastewater treatment agent for microbiologically oxidizing organic compounds in wastewater and a method for producing the same, and particularly to the treatment of wastewater in which microorganisms are entrappingly immobilized inside a polyacrylamide gel. The present invention relates to an agent and a method for producing the same. BACKGROUND ART Recently, it has been proposed to immobilize various bacterial cells and use them for wastewater treatment. This method is attracting attention because it has the advantage of generating a small amount of surplus sludge and being able to decompose recalcitrant organic matter (Kadono et al., "Sewage reuse technology using immobilized microorganisms", Japan Industrial Water Association). , collection of abstracts of the 19th research presentation, March 1982 and specification of patent application No. 1526, 1982,
reference). Conventionally known carriers used for immobilization include polyacrylamide gel, agar, carrageenan, collagen, polyvinyl alcohol, and sodium alginate. Among these carriers, polyacrylamide gel is said to be the most superior in terms of strength. Problems to be Solved by the Invention As mentioned above, polyacrylamide gel has relatively good strength, but in the case of conventional treatment agents that entrap microorganisms inside, the physical strength is 0.8.
It has a relatively low compressive strength of ~2.5Kg/cm 2 (compressive strength), and there are still problems with its durability (lifespan). Physical strength can be easily increased by increasing the acrylamide concentration or the amount of crosslinking agent during polymerization, but such methods (1) increase the amount of expensive monomers and crosslinking agents used; , (2) Microbial toxicity of monomers and crosslinking agents occurs rapidly as the concentration increases;
There are many disadvantages, such as a marked decrease in microbial activity after immobilization, and (3) an increase in the density of the gel, which significantly reduces the rate at which microorganisms take in organic matter and oxygen from wastewater. Therefore, an object of the present invention is to eliminate the drawbacks of the prior art and provide an immobilized microorganism that is excellent in physical strength and durability and has high activity. Means for Solving the Problems The wastewater treatment agent according to the present invention is a wastewater treatment agent that microbiologically oxidizes organic compounds in wastewater.
The feature is that the above is comprehensively fixed. The wastewater treatment agent according to the present invention is produced by suspending microorganisms in an aqueous solution of acrylamide monomer and polymerizing at a temperature of 40°C or lower to entrapping and immobilizing 4% or more of microorganisms in a polyacrylamide gel. . In this specification, the amount of microorganisms is calculated by the following formula. Amount of microorganisms (%) = Amount of dry bacterial cells in the gel (g) / Gel weight (g
) x 100 Gel weight = Dry bacterial weight in gel (g) + Resin weight (g)
)+crosslinking agent weight (g)+water weight (g) When producing the wastewater treatment agent according to the present invention, a crosslinking agent, a polymerization accelerator, and a polymerization initiator are added to an acrylamide monomer aqueous solution to perform a polymerization reaction. Examples of crosslinking agents for acrylamide include N,
N'-methylenebisacrylamide, N,N'-propylenebisacrylamide, diacrylamide dimethyl ether, 1,2-diacrylamide ethylene glycol or N,N'-diallyltartaric acid diamide, etc. can be used. As the polymerization accelerator, β-dimethylaminopropionitrile, N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine, etc. can be used. Moreover, as a polymerization initiator, potassium peroxodisulfate is usually used. The gel obtained by polymerization can be formed into shapes such as spheres, cylinders, plates, fibers, and hollow fibers with a size of 2 to 3 mm. Function: In addition to decomposing organic compounds, microorganisms act as plasticizers for gels, improving the strength of gels. By controlling the amount of microorganisms in the gel to 4% or more, it is possible to save the amount of crosslinking agent and obtain a high-strength processing agent. Examples Next, the present invention will be described in detail based on examples.
The present invention is not limited to this. Examples 1 to 5 Microorganisms used for entrapping immobilization were obtained by dehydrating activated sludge from the K sewage treatment plant using a Nutsuchie dehydration tester, and further adding a polymer flocculant at 0.5% based on the dry weight of the activated sludge. % dehydrated cake was used. Separately, 68% acrylamide monomer and N,N'-
A solution containing 3.78% methylenebisacrylamide was made. This solution, dehydrated cake, and tap water were mixed to have the composition shown in Table 1 below, and then β-dimethylaminopropionitrile was added as a polymerization accelerator to a concentration of 0.5%, and then a polymerization initiator was added. Potassium peroxodisulfate was added to the solution at a concentration of 0.25% and polymerized at 38°C to entrap and fix the activated sludge. The thus obtained polyacrylamide gel containing the entrapping and fixed activated sludge was shaped into a cylinder with a diameter of 3 mm and a height of 3 mm. The compressive strength and activity of wastewater treatment agents produced by varying the amount of microorganisms inside the polyacrylamide gel between 4 and 11% were measured and are shown in Table 2. Compressive strength is the pressure at which the polyacrylamide gel breaks using a Kiya type strength meter.
In addition, the activity is to add wastewater treatment agent to a 114ml incubation bottle.
The oxygen uptake rate was measured using sewage with a 11% filling and a BOD of 90mg/. Figure 1 shows the relationship between the amount of microorganisms and compressive strength obtained in this experiment. As is clear from Figure 1, the compressive strength is maximum when the amount of microorganisms is 4% or more.
【表】【table】
【表】
前記実施例では、微生物として活性汚泥を用い
たが、硝化菌、脱窒菌、メタン発酵菌、藻類、真
菌、放線菌等でも同様に良好な結果が得られ、ま
た混合培養したものでも、純粋培養したものでも
よい。
比較例
微生物量を１％及び２％とする以外は、実施例
１と同様に操作し、廃水処理剤を製造した。これ
らの圧縮強度は、それぞれ2.1Kg／cm2、3.0Kg／cm2
であり、本発明による前記実施例のものに比べて
著しく低い値である。
その圧縮強度を高めるために、架橋剤量を変動
させて同様に廃水処理剤を製造し、それぞれの圧
縮強度を測定した。結果を第２図に示す。第２図
において、１は微生物量１％の廃水処理剤、２は
微生物量２％の廃水処理剤を示す。第２図から明
らかなとおり、架橋剤の量を６％まで増加しても
最高3.9Kg／cm2の圧縮強度を達成できるにすぎな
い。
発明の効果
本発明によれば、微生物量を従来より多量に包
括固定しているので、高い活性が得られる。更に
架橋剤量を節約でき、しかも圧縮強度を大幅に向
上することができる。[Table] In the above examples, activated sludge was used as the microorganism, but similarly good results were obtained with nitrifying bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, methane fermenting bacteria, algae, fungi, actinomycetes, etc., and mixed cultures were also used. , pure culture may be used. Comparative Example A wastewater treatment agent was produced in the same manner as in Example 1, except that the amount of microorganisms was 1% and 2%. These compressive strengths are 2.1Kg/cm 2 and 3.0Kg/cm 2 respectively.
This is a significantly lower value than that of the above embodiment according to the present invention. In order to increase the compressive strength, wastewater treatment agents were produced in the same manner by varying the amount of crosslinking agent, and the compressive strength of each was measured. The results are shown in Figure 2. In FIG. 2, 1 indicates a wastewater treatment agent with a microbial content of 1%, and 2 indicates a wastewater treatment agent with a microbial content of 2%. As is clear from Figure 2, increasing the amount of crosslinking agent to 6% only makes it possible to achieve a maximum compressive strength of 3.9 Kg/cm 2 . Effects of the Invention According to the present invention, since a larger amount of microorganisms is comprehensively immobilized than before, high activity can be obtained. Furthermore, the amount of crosslinking agent can be saved, and the compressive strength can be significantly improved.
第１図は実施例により製造した廃水処理剤の圧
縮強度を示すグラフ、第２図は比較例により製造
した廃水処理剤の圧縮強度を示すグラフである。
１……微生物量１％の廃水処理剤、２……微生
物量２％の廃水処理剤。
FIG. 1 is a graph showing the compressive strength of the wastewater treatment agent produced in the example, and FIG. 2 is a graph showing the compressive strength of the wastewater treatment agent produced in the comparative example. 1... Wastewater treatment agent with a microbial content of 1%, 2... Wastewater treatment agent with a microbial content of 2%.
Claims (1)
廃水の処理剤において、ポリアクリルアミドゲル
内部に微生物を４％以上包括固定化したことを特
徴とする廃水の処理剤。 ２ アクリルアミドモノマー水溶液中に微生物を
懸濁し、40℃以下の温度で重合させることにより
ポリアクリルアミドゲル内に微生物を４％以上包
括固定化することを特徴とする廃水の処理剤の製
造方法。[Scope of Claims] 1. A wastewater treatment agent for microbiologically oxidizing organic compounds in wastewater, characterized in that 4% or more of microorganisms are entrappingly immobilized inside a polyacrylamide gel. 2. A method for producing a wastewater treatment agent, which comprises suspending microorganisms in an aqueous acrylamide monomer solution and polymerizing them at a temperature of 40° C. or lower, thereby entrapping and immobilizing 4% or more of microorganisms in a polyacrylamide gel.
Priority Applications (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP11732884A JPS60261591A (en) | 1984-06-07 | 1984-06-07 | Treating agent of waste water and its manufacture |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP11732884A JPS60261591A (en) | 1984-06-07 | 1984-06-07 | Treating agent of waste water and its manufacture |
Publications (2)
| Publication Number | Publication Date |
|---|---|
| JPS60261591A JPS60261591A (en) | 1985-12-24 |
| JPH0141113B2 true JPH0141113B2 (en) | 1989-09-04 |
Family
ID=14709016
Family Applications (1)
| Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP11732884A Granted JPS60261591A (en) | 1984-06-07 | 1984-06-07 | Treating agent of waste water and its manufacture |
Country Status (1)
| Country | Link |
|---|---|
| JP (1) | JPS60261591A (en) |
Families Citing this family (2)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JPS63101000A (en) * | 1986-10-16 | 1988-05-06 | Hitachi Plant Eng & Constr Co Ltd | Treatment of waste water containing substance difficult to be decomposed by organism |
| US6927071B2 (en) * | 2001-12-07 | 2005-08-09 | Beckman Coulter, Inc. | Method for reducing non-specific aggregation of latex microparticles in the presence of serum or plasma |
-
1984
- 1984-06-07 JP JP11732884A patent/JPS60261591A/en active Granted
Also Published As
| Publication number | Publication date |
|---|---|
| JPS60261591A (en) | 1985-12-24 |
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