datafusion-expr 48.0.0

// Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one
// or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
// distributed with this work for additional information
// regarding copyright ownership.  The ASF licenses this file
// to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the
// "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance
// with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing,
// software distributed under the License is distributed on an
// "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
// KIND, either express or implied.  See the License for the
// specific language governing permissions and limitations
// under the License.

use super::binary::binary_numeric_coercion;
use crate::{AggregateUDF, ScalarUDF, Signature, TypeSignature, WindowUDF};
use arrow::datatypes::FieldRef;
use arrow::{
    compute::can_cast_types,
    datatypes::{DataType, TimeUnit},
};
use datafusion_common::types::LogicalType;
use datafusion_common::utils::{
    base_type, coerced_fixed_size_list_to_list, ListCoercion,
};
use datafusion_common::{
    exec_err, internal_err, plan_err, types::NativeType, utils::list_ndims, Result,
};
use datafusion_expr_common::signature::ArrayFunctionArgument;
use datafusion_expr_common::type_coercion::binary::type_union_resolution;
use datafusion_expr_common::{
    signature::{ArrayFunctionSignature, FIXED_SIZE_LIST_WILDCARD, TIMEZONE_WILDCARD},
    type_coercion::binary::comparison_coercion_numeric,
    type_coercion::binary::string_coercion,
};
use std::sync::Arc;

/// Performs type coercion for scalar function arguments.
///
/// Returns the data types to which each argument must be coerced to
/// match `signature`.
///
/// For more details on coercion in general, please see the
/// [`type_coercion`](crate::type_coercion) module.
pub fn data_types_with_scalar_udf(
    current_types: &[DataType],
    func: &ScalarUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<DataType>> {
    let signature = func.signature();
    let type_signature = &signature.type_signature;

    if current_types.is_empty() && type_signature != &TypeSignature::UserDefined {
        if type_signature.supports_zero_argument() {
            return Ok(vec![]);
        } else if type_signature.used_to_support_zero_arguments() {
            // Special error to help during upgrade: https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/13763
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments. Use TypeSignature::Nullary for zero arguments", func.name());
        } else {
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments", func.name());
        }
    }

    let valid_types =
        get_valid_types_with_scalar_udf(type_signature, current_types, func)?;

    if valid_types
        .iter()
        .any(|data_type| data_type == current_types)
    {
        return Ok(current_types.to_vec());
    }

    try_coerce_types(func.name(), valid_types, current_types, type_signature)
}

/// Performs type coercion for aggregate function arguments.
///
/// Returns the fields to which each argument must be coerced to
/// match `signature`.
///
/// For more details on coercion in general, please see the
/// [`type_coercion`](crate::type_coercion) module.
pub fn fields_with_aggregate_udf(
    current_fields: &[FieldRef],
    func: &AggregateUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<FieldRef>> {
    let signature = func.signature();
    let type_signature = &signature.type_signature;

    if current_fields.is_empty() && type_signature != &TypeSignature::UserDefined {
        if type_signature.supports_zero_argument() {
            return Ok(vec![]);
        } else if type_signature.used_to_support_zero_arguments() {
            // Special error to help during upgrade: https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/13763
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments. Use TypeSignature::Nullary for zero arguments", func.name());
        } else {
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments", func.name());
        }
    }
    let current_types = current_fields
        .iter()
        .map(|f| f.data_type())
        .cloned()
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();

    let valid_types =
        get_valid_types_with_aggregate_udf(type_signature, &current_types, func)?;
    if valid_types
        .iter()
        .any(|data_type| data_type == &current_types)
    {
        return Ok(current_fields.to_vec());
    }

    let updated_types =
        try_coerce_types(func.name(), valid_types, &current_types, type_signature)?;

    Ok(current_fields
        .iter()
        .zip(updated_types)
        .map(|(current_field, new_type)| {
            current_field.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(new_type)
        })
        .map(Arc::new)
        .collect())
}

/// Performs type coercion for window function arguments.
///
/// Returns the data types to which each argument must be coerced to
/// match `signature`.
///
/// For more details on coercion in general, please see the
/// [`type_coercion`](crate::type_coercion) module.
pub fn fields_with_window_udf(
    current_fields: &[FieldRef],
    func: &WindowUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<FieldRef>> {
    let signature = func.signature();
    let type_signature = &signature.type_signature;

    if current_fields.is_empty() && type_signature != &TypeSignature::UserDefined {
        if type_signature.supports_zero_argument() {
            return Ok(vec![]);
        } else if type_signature.used_to_support_zero_arguments() {
            // Special error to help during upgrade: https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/13763
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments. Use TypeSignature::Nullary for zero arguments", func.name());
        } else {
            return plan_err!("'{}' does not support zero arguments", func.name());
        }
    }

    let current_types = current_fields
        .iter()
        .map(|f| f.data_type())
        .cloned()
        .collect::<Vec<_>>();
    let valid_types =
        get_valid_types_with_window_udf(type_signature, &current_types, func)?;
    if valid_types
        .iter()
        .any(|data_type| data_type == &current_types)
    {
        return Ok(current_fields.to_vec());
    }

    let updated_types =
        try_coerce_types(func.name(), valid_types, &current_types, type_signature)?;

    Ok(current_fields
        .iter()
        .zip(updated_types)
        .map(|(current_field, new_type)| {
            current_field.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(new_type)
        })
        .map(Arc::new)
        .collect())
}

/// Performs type coercion for function arguments.
///
/// Returns the data types to which each argument must be coerced to
/// match `signature`.
///
/// For more details on coercion in general, please see the
/// [`type_coercion`](crate::type_coercion) module.
pub fn data_types(
    function_name: impl AsRef<str>,
    current_types: &[DataType],
    signature: &Signature,
) -> Result<Vec<DataType>> {
    let type_signature = &signature.type_signature;

    if current_types.is_empty() && type_signature != &TypeSignature::UserDefined {
        if type_signature.supports_zero_argument() {
            return Ok(vec![]);
        } else if type_signature.used_to_support_zero_arguments() {
            // Special error to help during upgrade: https://github.com/apache/datafusion/issues/13763
            return plan_err!(
                "function '{}' has signature {type_signature:?} which does not support zero arguments. Use TypeSignature::Nullary for zero arguments",
                function_name.as_ref()
            );
        } else {
            return plan_err!(
                "Function '{}' has signature {type_signature:?} which does not support zero arguments",
                function_name.as_ref()
            );
        }
    }

    let valid_types =
        get_valid_types(function_name.as_ref(), type_signature, current_types)?;
    if valid_types
        .iter()
        .any(|data_type| data_type == current_types)
    {
        return Ok(current_types.to_vec());
    }

    try_coerce_types(
        function_name.as_ref(),
        valid_types,
        current_types,
        type_signature,
    )
}

fn is_well_supported_signature(type_signature: &TypeSignature) -> bool {
    if let TypeSignature::OneOf(signatures) = type_signature {
        return signatures.iter().all(is_well_supported_signature);
    }

    matches!(
        type_signature,
        TypeSignature::UserDefined
            | TypeSignature::Numeric(_)
            | TypeSignature::String(_)
            | TypeSignature::Coercible(_)
            | TypeSignature::Any(_)
            | TypeSignature::Nullary
            | TypeSignature::Comparable(_)
    )
}

fn try_coerce_types(
    function_name: &str,
    valid_types: Vec<Vec<DataType>>,
    current_types: &[DataType],
    type_signature: &TypeSignature,
) -> Result<Vec<DataType>> {
    let mut valid_types = valid_types;

    // Well-supported signature that returns exact valid types.
    if !valid_types.is_empty() && is_well_supported_signature(type_signature) {
        // There may be many valid types if valid signature is OneOf
        // Otherwise, there should be only one valid type
        if !type_signature.is_one_of() {
            assert_eq!(valid_types.len(), 1);
        }

        let valid_types = valid_types.swap_remove(0);
        if let Some(t) = maybe_data_types_without_coercion(&valid_types, current_types) {
            return Ok(t);
        }
    } else {
        // TODO: Deprecate this branch after all signatures are well-supported (aka coercion has happened already)
        // Try and coerce the argument types to match the signature, returning the
        // coerced types from the first matching signature.
        for valid_types in valid_types {
            if let Some(types) = maybe_data_types(&valid_types, current_types) {
                return Ok(types);
            }
        }
    }

    // none possible -> Error
    plan_err!(
        "Failed to coerce arguments to satisfy a call to '{function_name}' function: coercion from {current_types:?} to the signature {type_signature:?} failed"
    )
}

fn get_valid_types_with_scalar_udf(
    signature: &TypeSignature,
    current_types: &[DataType],
    func: &ScalarUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<Vec<DataType>>> {
    match signature {
        TypeSignature::UserDefined => match func.coerce_types(current_types) {
            Ok(coerced_types) => Ok(vec![coerced_types]),
            Err(e) => exec_err!(
                "Function '{}' user-defined coercion failed with {:?}",
                func.name(),
                e.strip_backtrace()
            ),
        },
        TypeSignature::OneOf(signatures) => {
            let mut res = vec![];
            let mut errors = vec![];
            for sig in signatures {
                match get_valid_types_with_scalar_udf(sig, current_types, func) {
                    Ok(valid_types) => {
                        res.extend(valid_types);
                    }
                    Err(e) => {
                        errors.push(e.to_string());
                    }
                }
            }

            // Every signature failed, return the joined error
            if res.is_empty() {
                internal_err!(
                    "Function '{}' failed to match any signature, errors: {}",
                    func.name(),
                    errors.join(",")
                )
            } else {
                Ok(res)
            }
        }
        _ => get_valid_types(func.name(), signature, current_types),
    }
}

fn get_valid_types_with_aggregate_udf(
    signature: &TypeSignature,
    current_types: &[DataType],
    func: &AggregateUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<Vec<DataType>>> {
    let valid_types = match signature {
        TypeSignature::UserDefined => match func.coerce_types(current_types) {
            Ok(coerced_types) => vec![coerced_types],
            Err(e) => {
                return exec_err!(
                    "Function '{}' user-defined coercion failed with {:?}",
                    func.name(),
                    e.strip_backtrace()
                )
            }
        },
        TypeSignature::OneOf(signatures) => signatures
            .iter()
            .filter_map(|t| {
                get_valid_types_with_aggregate_udf(t, current_types, func).ok()
            })
            .flatten()
            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
        _ => get_valid_types(func.name(), signature, current_types)?,
    };

    Ok(valid_types)
}

fn get_valid_types_with_window_udf(
    signature: &TypeSignature,
    current_types: &[DataType],
    func: &WindowUDF,
) -> Result<Vec<Vec<DataType>>> {
    let valid_types = match signature {
        TypeSignature::UserDefined => match func.coerce_types(current_types) {
            Ok(coerced_types) => vec![coerced_types],
            Err(e) => {
                return exec_err!(
                    "Function '{}' user-defined coercion failed with {:?}",
                    func.name(),
                    e.strip_backtrace()
                )
            }
        },
        TypeSignature::OneOf(signatures) => signatures
            .iter()
            .filter_map(|t| get_valid_types_with_window_udf(t, current_types, func).ok())
            .flatten()
            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
        _ => get_valid_types(func.name(), signature, current_types)?,
    };

    Ok(valid_types)
}

/// Returns a Vec of all possible valid argument types for the given signature.
fn get_valid_types(
    function_name: &str,
    signature: &TypeSignature,
    current_types: &[DataType],
) -> Result<Vec<Vec<DataType>>> {
    fn array_valid_types(
        function_name: &str,
        current_types: &[DataType],
        arguments: &[ArrayFunctionArgument],
        array_coercion: Option<&ListCoercion>,
    ) -> Result<Vec<Vec<DataType>>> {
        if current_types.len() != arguments.len() {
            return Ok(vec![vec![]]);
        }

        let mut large_list = false;
        let mut fixed_size = array_coercion != Some(&ListCoercion::FixedSizedListToList);
        let mut list_sizes = Vec::with_capacity(arguments.len());
        let mut element_types = Vec::with_capacity(arguments.len());
        for (argument, current_type) in arguments.iter().zip(current_types.iter()) {
            match argument {
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Index | ArrayFunctionArgument::String => (),
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Element => {
                    element_types.push(current_type.clone())
                }
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Array => match current_type {
                    DataType::Null => element_types.push(DataType::Null),
                    DataType::List(field) => {
                        element_types.push(field.data_type().clone());
                        fixed_size = false;
                    }
                    DataType::LargeList(field) => {
                        element_types.push(field.data_type().clone());
                        large_list = true;
                        fixed_size = false;
                    }
                    DataType::FixedSizeList(field, size) => {
                        element_types.push(field.data_type().clone());
                        list_sizes.push(*size)
                    }
                    arg_type => {
                        plan_err!("{function_name} does not support type {arg_type}")?
                    }
                },
            }
        }

        let Some(element_type) = type_union_resolution(&element_types) else {
            return Ok(vec![vec![]]);
        };

        if !fixed_size {
            list_sizes.clear()
        }

        let mut list_sizes = list_sizes.into_iter();
        let valid_types = arguments.iter().zip(current_types.iter()).map(
            |(argument_type, current_type)| match argument_type {
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Index => DataType::Int64,
                ArrayFunctionArgument::String => DataType::Utf8,
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Element => element_type.clone(),
                ArrayFunctionArgument::Array => {
                    if current_type.is_null() {
                        DataType::Null
                    } else if large_list {
                        DataType::new_large_list(element_type.clone(), true)
                    } else if let Some(size) = list_sizes.next() {
                        DataType::new_fixed_size_list(element_type.clone(), size, true)
                    } else {
                        DataType::new_list(element_type.clone(), true)
                    }
                }
            },
        );

        Ok(vec![valid_types.collect()])
    }

    fn recursive_array(array_type: &DataType) -> Option<DataType> {
        match array_type {
            DataType::List(_)
            | DataType::LargeList(_)
            | DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => {
                let array_type = coerced_fixed_size_list_to_list(array_type);
                Some(array_type)
            }
            _ => None,
        }
    }

    fn function_length_check(
        function_name: &str,
        length: usize,
        expected_length: usize,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        if length != expected_length {
            return plan_err!(
                "Function '{function_name}' expects {expected_length} arguments but received {length}"
            );
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    let valid_types = match signature {
        TypeSignature::Variadic(valid_types) => valid_types
            .iter()
            .map(|valid_type| current_types.iter().map(|_| valid_type.clone()).collect())
            .collect(),
        TypeSignature::String(number) => {
            function_length_check(function_name, current_types.len(), *number)?;

            let mut new_types = Vec::with_capacity(current_types.len());
            for data_type in current_types.iter() {
                let logical_data_type: NativeType = data_type.into();
                if logical_data_type == NativeType::String {
                    new_types.push(data_type.to_owned());
                } else if logical_data_type == NativeType::Null {
                    // TODO: Switch to Utf8View if all the string functions supports Utf8View
                    new_types.push(DataType::Utf8);
                } else {
                    return plan_err!(
                        "Function '{function_name}' expects NativeType::String but received {logical_data_type}"
                    );
                }
            }

            // Find the common string type for the given types
            fn find_common_type(
                function_name: &str,
                lhs_type: &DataType,
                rhs_type: &DataType,
            ) -> Result<DataType> {
                match (lhs_type, rhs_type) {
                    (DataType::Dictionary(_, lhs), DataType::Dictionary(_, rhs)) => {
                        find_common_type(function_name, lhs, rhs)
                    }
                    (DataType::Dictionary(_, v), other)
                    | (other, DataType::Dictionary(_, v)) => {
                        find_common_type(function_name, v, other)
                    }
                    _ => {
                        if let Some(coerced_type) = string_coercion(lhs_type, rhs_type) {
                            Ok(coerced_type)
                        } else {
                            plan_err!(
                                "Function '{function_name}' could not coerce {lhs_type} and {rhs_type} to a common string type"
                            )
                        }
                    }
                }
            }

            // Length checked above, safe to unwrap
            let mut coerced_type = new_types.first().unwrap().to_owned();
            for t in new_types.iter().skip(1) {
                coerced_type = find_common_type(function_name, &coerced_type, t)?;
            }

            fn base_type_or_default_type(data_type: &DataType) -> DataType {
                if let DataType::Dictionary(_, v) = data_type {
                    base_type_or_default_type(v)
                } else {
                    data_type.to_owned()
                }
            }

            vec![vec![base_type_or_default_type(&coerced_type); *number]]
        }
        TypeSignature::Numeric(number) => {
            function_length_check(function_name, current_types.len(), *number)?;

            // Find common numeric type among given types except string
            let mut valid_type = current_types.first().unwrap().to_owned();
            for t in current_types.iter().skip(1) {
                let logical_data_type: NativeType = t.into();
                if logical_data_type == NativeType::Null {
                    continue;
                }

                if !logical_data_type.is_numeric() {
                    return plan_err!(
                        "Function '{function_name}' expects NativeType::Numeric but received {logical_data_type}"
                    );
                }

                if let Some(coerced_type) = binary_numeric_coercion(&valid_type, t) {
                    valid_type = coerced_type;
                } else {
                    return plan_err!(
                        "For function '{function_name}' {valid_type} and {t} are not coercible to a common numeric type"
                    );
                }
            }

            let logical_data_type: NativeType = valid_type.clone().into();
            // Fallback to default type if we don't know which type to coerced to
            // f64 is chosen since most of the math functions utilize Signature::numeric,
            // and their default type is double precision
            if logical_data_type == NativeType::Null {
                valid_type = DataType::Float64;
            } else if !logical_data_type.is_numeric() {
                return plan_err!(
                    "Function '{function_name}' expects NativeType::Numeric but received {logical_data_type}"
                );
            }

            vec![vec![valid_type; *number]]
        }
        TypeSignature::Comparable(num) => {
            function_length_check(function_name, current_types.len(), *num)?;
            let mut target_type = current_types[0].to_owned();
            for data_type in current_types.iter().skip(1) {
                if let Some(dt) = comparison_coercion_numeric(&target_type, data_type) {
                    target_type = dt;
                } else {
                    return plan_err!("For function '{function_name}' {target_type} and {data_type} is not comparable");
                }
            }
            // Convert null to String type.
            if target_type.is_null() {
                vec![vec![DataType::Utf8View; *num]]
            } else {
                vec![vec![target_type; *num]]
            }
        }
        TypeSignature::Coercible(param_types) => {
            function_length_check(function_name, current_types.len(), param_types.len())?;

            let mut new_types = Vec::with_capacity(current_types.len());
            for (current_type, param) in current_types.iter().zip(param_types.iter()) {
                let current_native_type: NativeType = current_type.into();

                if param.desired_type().matches_native_type(&current_native_type) {
                    let casted_type = param.desired_type().default_casted_type(
                        &current_native_type,
                        current_type,
                    )?;

                    new_types.push(casted_type);
                } else if param
                .allowed_source_types()
                .iter()
                .any(|t| t.matches_native_type(&current_native_type)) {
                    // If the condition is met which means `implicit coercion`` is provided so we can safely unwrap
                    let default_casted_type = param.default_casted_type().unwrap();
                    let casted_type = default_casted_type.default_cast_for(current_type)?;
                    new_types.push(casted_type);
                } else {
                    return internal_err!(
                        "Expect {} but received {}, DataType: {}",
                        param.desired_type(),
                        current_native_type,
                        current_type
                    );
                }
            }

            vec![new_types]
        }
        TypeSignature::Uniform(number, valid_types) => {
            if *number == 0 {
                return plan_err!("The function '{function_name}' expected at least one argument");
            }

            valid_types
                .iter()
                .map(|valid_type| (0..*number).map(|_| valid_type.clone()).collect())
                .collect()
        }
        TypeSignature::UserDefined => {
            return internal_err!(
                "Function '{function_name}' user-defined signature should be handled by function-specific coerce_types"
            )
        }
        TypeSignature::VariadicAny => {
            if current_types.is_empty() {
                return plan_err!(
                    "Function '{function_name}' expected at least one argument but received 0"
                );
            }
            vec![current_types.to_vec()]
        }
        TypeSignature::Exact(valid_types) => vec![valid_types.clone()],
        TypeSignature::ArraySignature(ref function_signature) => match function_signature {
            ArrayFunctionSignature::Array { arguments, array_coercion, } => {
                array_valid_types(function_name, current_types, arguments, array_coercion.as_ref())?
            }
            ArrayFunctionSignature::RecursiveArray => {
                if current_types.len() != 1 {
                    return Ok(vec![vec![]]);
                }
                recursive_array(&current_types[0])
                    .map_or_else(|| vec![vec![]], |array_type| vec![vec![array_type]])
            }
            ArrayFunctionSignature::MapArray => {
                if current_types.len() != 1 {
                    return Ok(vec![vec![]]);
                }

                match &current_types[0] {
                    DataType::Map(_, _) => vec![vec![current_types[0].clone()]],
                    _ => vec![vec![]],
                }
            }
        },
        TypeSignature::Nullary => {
            if !current_types.is_empty() {
                return plan_err!(
                    "The function '{function_name}' expected zero argument but received {}",
                    current_types.len()
                );
            }
            vec![vec![]]
        }
        TypeSignature::Any(number) => {
            if current_types.is_empty() {
                return plan_err!(
                    "The function '{function_name}' expected at least one argument but received 0"
                );
            }

            if current_types.len() != *number {
                return plan_err!(
                    "The function '{function_name}' expected {number} arguments but received {}",
                    current_types.len()
                );
            }
            vec![(0..*number).map(|i| current_types[i].clone()).collect()]
        }
        TypeSignature::OneOf(types) => types
            .iter()
            .filter_map(|t| get_valid_types(function_name, t, current_types).ok())
            .flatten()
            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
    };

    Ok(valid_types)
}

/// Try to coerce the current argument types to match the given `valid_types`.
///
/// For example, if a function `func` accepts arguments of  `(int64, int64)`,
/// but was called with `(int32, int64)`, this function could match the
/// valid_types by coercing the first argument to `int64`, and would return
/// `Some([int64, int64])`.
fn maybe_data_types(
    valid_types: &[DataType],
    current_types: &[DataType],
) -> Option<Vec<DataType>> {
    if valid_types.len() != current_types.len() {
        return None;
    }

    let mut new_type = Vec::with_capacity(valid_types.len());
    for (i, valid_type) in valid_types.iter().enumerate() {
        let current_type = &current_types[i];

        if current_type == valid_type {
            new_type.push(current_type.clone())
        } else {
            // attempt to coerce.
            // TODO: Replace with `can_cast_types` after failing cases are resolved
            // (they need new signature that returns exactly valid types instead of list of possible valid types).
            if let Some(coerced_type) = coerced_from(valid_type, current_type) {
                new_type.push(coerced_type)
            } else {
                // not possible
                return None;
            }
        }
    }
    Some(new_type)
}

/// Check if the current argument types can be coerced to match the given `valid_types`
/// unlike `maybe_data_types`, this function does not coerce the types.
/// TODO: I think this function should replace `maybe_data_types` after signature are well-supported.
fn maybe_data_types_without_coercion(
    valid_types: &[DataType],
    current_types: &[DataType],
) -> Option<Vec<DataType>> {
    if valid_types.len() != current_types.len() {
        return None;
    }

    let mut new_type = Vec::with_capacity(valid_types.len());
    for (i, valid_type) in valid_types.iter().enumerate() {
        let current_type = &current_types[i];

        if current_type == valid_type {
            new_type.push(current_type.clone())
        } else if can_cast_types(current_type, valid_type) {
            // validate the valid type is castable from the current type
            new_type.push(valid_type.clone())
        } else {
            return None;
        }
    }
    Some(new_type)
}

/// Return true if a value of type `type_from` can be coerced
/// (losslessly converted) into a value of `type_to`
///
/// See the module level documentation for more detail on coercion.
pub fn can_coerce_from(type_into: &DataType, type_from: &DataType) -> bool {
    if type_into == type_from {
        return true;
    }
    if let Some(coerced) = coerced_from(type_into, type_from) {
        return coerced == *type_into;
    }
    false
}

/// Find the coerced type for the given `type_into` and `type_from`.
/// Returns `None` if coercion is not possible.
///
/// Expect uni-directional coercion, for example, i32 is coerced to i64, but i64 is not coerced to i32.
///
/// Unlike [crate::binary::comparison_coercion], the coerced type is usually `wider` for lossless conversion.
fn coerced_from<'a>(
    type_into: &'a DataType,
    type_from: &'a DataType,
) -> Option<DataType> {
    use self::DataType::*;

    // match Dictionary first
    match (type_into, type_from) {
        // coerced dictionary first
        (_, Dictionary(_, value_type))
            if coerced_from(type_into, value_type).is_some() =>
        {
            Some(type_into.clone())
        }
        (Dictionary(_, value_type), _)
            if coerced_from(value_type, type_from).is_some() =>
        {
            Some(type_into.clone())
        }
        // coerced into type_into
        (Int8, Null | Int8) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (Int16, Null | Int8 | Int16 | UInt8) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (Int32, Null | Int8 | Int16 | Int32 | UInt8 | UInt16) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (Int64, Null | Int8 | Int16 | Int32 | Int64 | UInt8 | UInt16 | UInt32) => {
            Some(type_into.clone())
        }
        (UInt8, Null | UInt8) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (UInt16, Null | UInt8 | UInt16) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (UInt32, Null | UInt8 | UInt16 | UInt32) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (UInt64, Null | UInt8 | UInt16 | UInt32 | UInt64) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (
            Float32,
            Null | Int8 | Int16 | Int32 | Int64 | UInt8 | UInt16 | UInt32 | UInt64
            | Float32,
        ) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (
            Float64,
            Null
            | Int8
            | Int16
            | Int32
            | Int64
            | UInt8
            | UInt16
            | UInt32
            | UInt64
            | Float32
            | Float64
            | Decimal128(_, _),
        ) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (
            Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None),
            Null | Timestamp(_, None) | Date32 | Utf8 | LargeUtf8,
        ) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (Interval(_), Utf8 | LargeUtf8) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        // We can go into a Utf8View from a Utf8 or LargeUtf8
        (Utf8View, Utf8 | LargeUtf8 | Null) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        // Any type can be coerced into strings
        (Utf8 | LargeUtf8, _) => Some(type_into.clone()),
        (Null, _) if can_cast_types(type_from, type_into) => Some(type_into.clone()),

        (List(_), FixedSizeList(_, _)) => Some(type_into.clone()),

        // Only accept list and largelist with the same number of dimensions unless the type is Null.
        // List or LargeList with different dimensions should be handled in TypeSignature or other places before this
        (List(_) | LargeList(_), _)
            if base_type(type_from).is_null()
                || list_ndims(type_from) == list_ndims(type_into) =>
        {
            Some(type_into.clone())
        }
        // should be able to coerce wildcard fixed size list to non wildcard fixed size list
        (
            FixedSizeList(f_into, FIXED_SIZE_LIST_WILDCARD),
            FixedSizeList(f_from, size_from),
        ) => match coerced_from(f_into.data_type(), f_from.data_type()) {
            Some(data_type) if &data_type != f_into.data_type() => {
                let new_field =
                    Arc::new(f_into.as_ref().clone().with_data_type(data_type));
                Some(FixedSizeList(new_field, *size_from))
            }
            Some(_) => Some(FixedSizeList(Arc::clone(f_into), *size_from)),
            _ => None,
        },
        (Timestamp(unit, Some(tz)), _) if tz.as_ref() == TIMEZONE_WILDCARD => {
            match type_from {
                Timestamp(_, Some(from_tz)) => {
                    Some(Timestamp(*unit, Some(Arc::clone(from_tz))))
                }
                Null | Date32 | Utf8 | LargeUtf8 | Timestamp(_, None) => {
                    // In the absence of any other information assume the time zone is "+00" (UTC).
                    Some(Timestamp(*unit, Some("+00".into())))
                }
                _ => None,
            }
        }
        (Timestamp(_, Some(_)), Null | Timestamp(_, _) | Date32 | Utf8 | LargeUtf8) => {
            Some(type_into.clone())
        }
        _ => None,
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use crate::Volatility;

    use super::*;
    use arrow::datatypes::Field;
    use datafusion_common::assert_contains;

    #[test]
    fn test_string_conversion() {
        let cases = vec![
            (DataType::Utf8View, DataType::Utf8, true),
            (DataType::Utf8View, DataType::LargeUtf8, true),
        ];

        for case in cases {
            assert_eq!(can_coerce_from(&case.0, &case.1), case.2);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_maybe_data_types() {
        // this vec contains: arg1, arg2, expected result
        let cases = vec![
            // 2 entries, same values
            (
                vec![DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt16],
                vec![DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt16],
                Some(vec![DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt16]),
            ),
            // 2 entries, can coerce values
            (
                vec![DataType::UInt16, DataType::UInt16],
                vec![DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt16],
                Some(vec![DataType::UInt16, DataType::UInt16]),
            ),
            // 0 entries, all good
            (vec![], vec![], Some(vec![])),
            // 2 entries, can't coerce
            (
                vec![DataType::Boolean, DataType::UInt16],
                vec![DataType::UInt8, DataType::UInt16],
                None,
            ),
            // u32 -> u16 is possible
            (
                vec![DataType::Boolean, DataType::UInt32],
                vec![DataType::Boolean, DataType::UInt16],
                Some(vec![DataType::Boolean, DataType::UInt32]),
            ),
            // UTF8 -> Timestamp
            (
                vec![
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None),
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+TZ".into())),
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+01".into())),
                ],
                vec![DataType::Utf8, DataType::Utf8, DataType::Utf8],
                Some(vec![
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, None),
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+00".into())),
                    DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Nanosecond, Some("+01".into())),
                ]),
            ),
        ];

        for case in cases {
            assert_eq!(maybe_data_types(&case.0, &case.1), case.2)
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_numeric() -> Result<()> {
        let get_valid_types_flatten =
            |function_name: &str,
             signature: &TypeSignature,
             current_types: &[DataType]| {
                get_valid_types(function_name, signature, current_types)
                    .unwrap()
                    .into_iter()
                    .flatten()
                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
            };

        // Trivial case.
        let got = get_valid_types_flatten(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(1),
            &[DataType::Int32],
        );
        assert_eq!(got, [DataType::Int32]);

        // Args are coerced into a common numeric type.
        let got = get_valid_types_flatten(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(2),
            &[DataType::Int32, DataType::Int64],
        );
        assert_eq!(got, [DataType::Int64, DataType::Int64]);

        // Args are coerced into a common numeric type, specifically, int would be coerced to float.
        let got = get_valid_types_flatten(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(3),
            &[DataType::Int32, DataType::Int64, DataType::Float64],
        );
        assert_eq!(
            got,
            [DataType::Float64, DataType::Float64, DataType::Float64]
        );

        // Cannot coerce args to a common numeric type.
        let got = get_valid_types(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(2),
            &[DataType::Int32, DataType::Utf8],
        )
        .unwrap_err();
        assert_contains!(
            got.to_string(),
            "Function 'test' expects NativeType::Numeric but received NativeType::String"
        );

        // Fallbacks to float64 if the arg is of type null.
        let got = get_valid_types_flatten(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(1),
            &[DataType::Null],
        );
        assert_eq!(got, [DataType::Float64]);

        // Rejects non-numeric arg.
        let got = get_valid_types(
            "test",
            &TypeSignature::Numeric(1),
            &[DataType::Timestamp(TimeUnit::Second, None)],
        )
        .unwrap_err();
        assert_contains!(
            got.to_string(),
            "Function 'test' expects NativeType::Numeric but received NativeType::Timestamp(Second, None)"
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_one_of() -> Result<()> {
        let signature =
            TypeSignature::OneOf(vec![TypeSignature::Any(1), TypeSignature::Any(2)]);

        let invalid_types = get_valid_types(
            "test",
            &signature,
            &[DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32],
        )?;
        assert_eq!(invalid_types.len(), 0);

        let args = vec![DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32];
        let valid_types = get_valid_types("test", &signature, &args)?;
        assert_eq!(valid_types.len(), 1);
        assert_eq!(valid_types[0], args);

        let args = vec![DataType::Int32];
        let valid_types = get_valid_types("test", &signature, &args)?;
        assert_eq!(valid_types.len(), 1);
        assert_eq!(valid_types[0], args);

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_length_check() -> Result<()> {
        let signature = TypeSignature::Numeric(1);

        let err = get_valid_types("test", &signature, &[]).unwrap_err();
        assert_contains!(
            err.to_string(),
            "Function 'test' expects 1 arguments but received 0"
        );

        let err = get_valid_types(
            "test",
            &signature,
            &[DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32, DataType::Int32],
        )
        .unwrap_err();
        assert_contains!(
            err.to_string(),
            "Function 'test' expects 1 arguments but received 3"
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_fixed_list_wildcard_coerce() -> Result<()> {
        let inner = Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int32, false));
        let current_types = vec![
            DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::clone(&inner), 2), // able to coerce for any size
        ];

        let signature = Signature::exact(
            vec![DataType::FixedSizeList(
                Arc::clone(&inner),
                FIXED_SIZE_LIST_WILDCARD,
            )],
            Volatility::Stable,
        );

        let coerced_data_types = data_types("test", &current_types, &signature)?;
        assert_eq!(coerced_data_types, current_types);

        // make sure it can't coerce to a different size
        let signature = Signature::exact(
            vec![DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::clone(&inner), 3)],
            Volatility::Stable,
        );
        let coerced_data_types = data_types("test", &current_types, &signature);
        assert!(coerced_data_types.is_err());

        // make sure it works with the same type.
        let signature = Signature::exact(
            vec![DataType::FixedSizeList(Arc::clone(&inner), 2)],
            Volatility::Stable,
        );
        let coerced_data_types = data_types("test", &current_types, &signature).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(coerced_data_types, current_types);

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_nested_wildcard_fixed_size_lists() -> Result<()> {
        let type_into = DataType::FixedSizeList(
            Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(
                DataType::FixedSizeList(
                    Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int32, false)),
                    FIXED_SIZE_LIST_WILDCARD,
                ),
                false,
            )),
            FIXED_SIZE_LIST_WILDCARD,
        );

        let type_from = DataType::FixedSizeList(
            Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(
                DataType::FixedSizeList(
                    Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int8, false)),
                    4,
                ),
                false,
            )),
            3,
        );

        assert_eq!(
            coerced_from(&type_into, &type_from),
            Some(DataType::FixedSizeList(
                Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(
                    DataType::FixedSizeList(
                        Arc::new(Field::new_list_field(DataType::Int32, false)),
                        4,
                    ),
                    false,
                )),
                3,
            ))
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_coerced_from_dictionary() {
        let type_into =
            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::UInt32));
        let type_from = DataType::Int64;
        assert_eq!(coerced_from(&type_into, &type_from), None);

        let type_from =
            DataType::Dictionary(Box::new(DataType::Int32), Box::new(DataType::UInt32));
        let type_into = DataType::Int64;
        assert_eq!(
            coerced_from(&type_into, &type_from),
            Some(type_into.clone())
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_array_and_array() -> Result<()> {
        let function = "array_and_array";
        let signature = Signature::arrays(
            2,
            Some(ListCoercion::FixedSizedListToList),
            Volatility::Immutable,
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true),
            DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Float64, true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Float64, true),
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Float64, true),
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int64, 3, true),
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int32, 5, true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true),
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true),
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Null, 3, true),
            DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Utf8, true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Utf8, true),
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Utf8, true),
            ]]
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_array_and_element() -> Result<()> {
        let function = "array_and_element";
        let signature = Signature::array_and_element(Volatility::Immutable);

        let data_types =
            vec![DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), DataType::Float64];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Float64, true),
                DataType::Float64,
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Int32, true),
            DataType::Null,
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Int32, true),
                DataType::Int32,
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Null, 3, true),
            DataType::Utf8,
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Utf8, true),
                DataType::Utf8,
            ]]
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_element_and_array() -> Result<()> {
        let function = "element_and_array";
        let signature = Signature::element_and_array(Volatility::Immutable);

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Null, false),
            DataType::new_list(DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true), true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Int64, true),
                DataType::new_list(DataType::new_large_list(DataType::Int64, true), true),
            ]]
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_get_valid_types_fixed_size_arrays() -> Result<()> {
        let function = "fixed_size_arrays";
        let signature = Signature::arrays(2, None, Volatility::Immutable);

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int64, 3, true),
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int32, 5, true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int64, 3, true),
                DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int64, 5, true),
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Int64, 3, true),
            DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true),
                DataType::new_list(DataType::Int64, true),
            ]]
        );

        let data_types = vec![
            DataType::new_fixed_size_list(DataType::Utf8, 3, true),
            DataType::new_list(DataType::new_list(DataType::Int32, true), true),
        ];
        assert_eq!(
            get_valid_types(function, &signature.type_signature, &data_types)?,
            vec![vec![]]
        );

        Ok(())
    }
}